Ancient Indian Education evolved strictly on the foundations of Indian epistemological and philosophical traditions. The streams of education were divided into the Paravidya(The higher or spiritual sciences) and Aparavidya(The lower or secular sciences). A balanced combination of both is advocated so that both civilisation and culture are imparted. In the Vedic age, no gender or class-based distinction was made in imparting education as evident from the Samhitas. However, areas of study might have differed according to Varna and vocation. Education was imparted in Gurukuls which usually included the home and household of the teachers and the system was strictly residential (even for royal family members). The Smriti age (c.200BCE) saw the start of certain challenges in the education system including gender segregation and rigidification of caste hierarchies in education although significant milestones were also achieved including the establishment of universities like Nalanda and Taxila, allowing advanced, interdisciplinary studies and dissemination as well as absorption of knowledge across national and subnational borders. Role of temples in education also came to the forefront. By the medieval era, India had a well-established system of formal and informal education with a high rate of literacy. and significant advances in mathematics, sciences, philosophy, literature and art forms were made. This system continued in its essence and large scale till the colonisation of India (c.18th century AD) where it suffered gradual decline and degradation due to several factors mentioned ahead in the primer.
Areas of Study
During the Vedic age and consequently, the fields of study are elaborated in Chandogya Upanishad briefly.
ऋग्वेदं भगवोऽध्येमि यजुर्वेदं सामवेदमाथर्वणं चतुर्थमितिहासपुराणं पञ्चमं वेदानां वेदं पित्र्यं राशिं दैवं निधिं वाकोवाक्यमेकायनं देवविद्यां ब्रह्मविद्यां भूतविद्यां क्षत्रविद्यां नक्षत्रविद्यां सर्पदेवजनविद्यामेतद्भगवोऽध्येमि ॥ 7.1.2 ॥
That is 1) The Four Vedas 2) The Itihasa and Puranas 3) The Grammar of Sanskrit 4) Science of pleasing the Pitris (Ancestors) 5) Rasividya (Mathematics) 6) Science of Daiva ie. Omens and Astrology 7) Nidhividya ie. Mineralogy and Material Sciences 8) Ethics 9) Logic 10) Bhutavidya ie. the science of elements (Alchemy/Chemistry) 11) Military Sciences (Kshatravidya) 12) Astronomy (Nakshatravidya) and Fine Arts (Devajana Vidya). The Vedangas also constituted fields of study delving deep into the Vedic literature and application namely Siksa( norms of phonetics — pronunciation, sounds, and the duration of each syllable’s utterance – euphony), Vyakaranam(Grammar). Chhanda(metre of Vedic poetry), Nirukta(Vedic Dictio- nary or elaboration on meaning), Jyotisa(Vedic astronomy and astrology) and Kalpa(performance of Vedic rituals).
The elaborate Gurukula system also served the immense importance of transmission of texts like Vedas, Upanishads and their commentaries through the ages. This transmission through millennia in their uncorrupted form is nothing less than a miracle of the education system, infused with the characteristics of dedication and discipline. Later areas of study expanded to Diplomacy and Political Sciences including the seminal work of Arthasastra, Medical Sciences (including works of Agnivesa, Susruta and Charaka) and advanced architecture among others. Hence by the early medieval era, the Indian education system encompassed nearly all broad areas of study existent today.
Methodology and Philosophy of Education
The beginnings of the Gurukula system of education have roots in the Vedic Risis. Each Risi would compile his knowledge and works gained by the power of penance and study and pass it on to his sons and family who would then create a ’School of Study’ called a Shakha. These Shakhas gradually evolved into Gu- rukulas with various specialisations and guardianship of certain fields of study or Vedic Shakhas. Each Gurukul was akin to the present-day colleges/schools in their composition with the Guru/Rishi as the principal, the Acharyas as experts in their fields (Eg. Vedas and esoteric secrets) and the Upadhyayas or teachers/readers/lecturers who were versed in a part of the Śruti or the Aṅgas (ancillary subjects) and derived their sole livelihood by teaching it. Other facilities of the Gurukul including the food, maintenance, cleanliness and security were provided as a concerted effort by the families of the faculty and the students.
What remarkably stands out is that there were no fees taken from the students for their education. This is in stark contrast to the sorry state of commercialisation of education in the modern world. The services of the students to the Gurukula formed the only kind of service or fees they were supposed to provide to the Gurukula. Another salient feature that followed from this arrangement was the equality of students. A common student or one from royalty was treated and educated similarly with no distinction or special treatment. Even the noblest of families had to send their children to the same education arrange- ment where their children were treated similarly to commoners, hence reducing the barriers of class and income.
Children were graded according to their performance and aptitude and in- nate potentials were duly identified to be groomed accordingly. A verse of Rigveda states “अ॒क्ष॒ण्वन्त॒ : कणर्॑वन्त॒ : सखा॑यो मनोज॒वेष्वस॑मा बभूवुः” ie. Friends possessing eyes, possessing ears, were (yet) unequal in mental apprehension”. Sayanacharya talks about grading students into three categories viz. Mahaprajnana, Madhyamprajnana and Alpaprajnana (High, Medium and Low) mental aptitude based on their capabilities of grasping and intellectual analysis.
The studies began with strict discipline before daybreak or as Taittriya Samhita puts it, ’before birds start chirping in the morning’. Learning was placed on the high ideals of Rita, Satya and Dharma with the moral codes of truth, austerity and dedication as the first principles of education. Rote education was looked down upon and not appreciated. The focus was equally on factual knowledge as well as meaning. The Samhitopanishad Brahmana compares rote learning to ’an ass carrying sandalwood who bears the load but does not enjoy its fragrance’. Another passage states rote learning without understanding its meaning is like dry wood on ashes that can never blaze. Hence education was based on three stages. The first Sravana implied factual knowledge and assimilation of information. The second Manana implied analysis and deep understanding including research on the knowledge. The third and final stage was Nidhyasana or application of the knowledge to practical life, moulding of individual conduct and morals and public welfare. Sadly the present-day education system places most emphasis on Sravana, less on Manana while the element of Nidhyasana is almost absent.
Rules, Conduct and Process of Gurukulas
The admission was made by the formal ceremony Upanayana or initiation by which the pupil left his home for that of the preceptor or Gurukula. In this new home, he had a second birth and was called Dvija or twice-born. The discipline of brahmacharya or celibacy was compulsory. The students were to live under strict discipline and submission to the teacher under vows. These pupils are referred to as Vratacharis in the Rigveda. Married pupils were accepted as students but not as resident students, highlighting aspects of preference marriage after education (as opposed to early marriage) as well as education being open to all age groups.
The typical period of study was labelled as Brahmacharya Asrama and lasted roughly twelve years. Personal relation between the teacher and the student was absolutely essential as contrasted to the present-day materialistic education system (especially in higher education) which is based on mere lectureship like a staged actor before the audience. The spirit of mutual love and duty between the teacher and the student was critical which is now missing. External signs of studentship included wearing the ajina or skin of an animal (mainly deer skin), danda or wooden staff, mekhala or grass girdle, upavita or the sacred thread and jata or matted locks and performing certain external duties, like begging for alms.
Ideals of education are brilliantly elucidated in Siksa Valli of Taittriya Upanishad which is the convocation address of the Gurukula education and should be included as the convocation address by educational institutes in India to remind the students of their duties and moral virtues to for the application of their education towards the common good in this era of ’guided missiles and misguided men’. The teacher says,
सत्यं वद । धर्मं चर ॥
स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः । आचार्याय प्रियं धनमाहृत्य प्रजातन्तुं मा व्यवच्छेत्सीः । सत्यान्न प्रमदितव्यम् । धर्मान्न प्रमदितव्यम् । कुशलान्न प्रमदितव्यम् । भूत्यै न प्रमदितव्यम् । स्वाध्यायप्रवचनाभ्यां न प्रमदितव्यम् । देवपितृकार्याभ्यां न प्रमदितव्यम् ॥
मातृदेवो भव । पितृदेवो भव । आचार्यदेवो भव । अतिथिदेवो भव ॥
श्रद्धया देयम् । अश्रद्धयाऽदेयम् । श्रिया देयम् । ह्रिया देयम् । भिया देयम् । संविदा देयम् ॥
अथ यदि ते कर्मविचिकित्सा वा वृत्तविचिकित्सा वा स्यात् । ये तत्र ब्राह्मणाः संमर्शिनः । युक्ता आयुक्ताः । अलूक्षा धर्मकामाः स्युः । यथा ते तत्र वर्तेरन् । तथा तत्र वर्तेथाः ॥
Speak the true(Truth). Follow Dharma(Morality,Integrity,Rectitude,Duties etc.).
Be thou never negligent of study and your duties(societal, religious etc.)
Treat thy mother as a God; as a God treat thou thy father; as a God shalt thou treat thy teacher; thy guests as Gods shalt thou treat.
Whatever thou hast to give, do thou give it only with reverence. Never with irreverence should a thing be given.
Now if to thee a doubt as to a deed, or a doubt as to conduct, should occur, as the learned men there who are thoughtful, zealous, well-versed, not hard (at heart), desirous of Dharma would act in such matters, so there shalt thou act.
Centres of Learning in Ancient and Medieval India
Education in the Vedic era was widespread across the country, with centres of excellence in the Indus, Sarasvati, and Ganga valleys. Hermitages in the deep forests of Naimisaranya(presently in central Uttar Pradesh) and other tranquil natural spots were also desired as educational hotspots to provide an atmosphere of tranquillity and peace, away from the distraction of the cities. Kingdoms of Videha, Kasi, Ayodhya and Hastinapur among others were famed for their education and learning. Risis and their gurukulas were as widespread as Odisha and Maharashtra and South India(eg. Risi Dirghatamas, Risi Agastya). Generous grants were provided by the kings to these Gurukulas in terms of protection, land and kind (usually cows and gold).
Universities gradually evolved as centres of excellence in Nalanda, Taxila, Vikramshila and other places. However, it must be noted that these were complementary to the Gurukulas as centres for higher education and not a replacement by any means. Generous grants were also provided by rulers surrounding these institutions, including Pala Kings who supported Nalanda, Maitraka Kings supporting Vallabhi etc. Foreign grants were also received from rulers of the Sailendra dynasty of Indonesia, Tibetan monarchs and even Chinese rulers. An elaboration on Taxila will provide a general overview of the university system in India.
Takshasila is the oldest among the universities in ancient India. It was well known as a centre of learning as early as 700 B.C. The educational activities at this place must have started at least a few centuries earlier. Several learned teachers who were recognised as authorities on various subjects resided at the place. the university had strict autonomy of the teachers in all matters of coursework, instruction and duration of coursework. Generally, there was no rigid timeline for courses and graduation depended on the satisfaction of the teacher(generally specialisation took up to eight years). As mentioned earlier, only higher education was imparted while graduation was to be done from the Gurukula system. Courses taught were broadly in line with areas of study as discussed earlier.
No fees were charged from any student and financing was accomplished via grants. Admission was free to all castes. There was absolute democracy in the university. The different classes and castes merged in the democracy of learning. Democracy was strengthened by the existence of a common code of rules and observances prescribed for students irrespective of their social or economic status. Distinguished alumni of Taxila included the great political philosopher Chanakya and the great physician Jivaka (royal physician of Bimbisara). The universities declined courtesy of repeated invasions and attacks by foreign elements. Taxila was destroyed by the Huna and Kusana invasions while Nalanda met several blows by the Islamic invaders and was finally burnt completely by Bakhtiyar Khilji.
Temples also occupied a central place as institutions of learning. Attached Gurukulas were institutions of religious as well as secular education, supported by massive royal grants. Temples in Karnataka(Chalukyan era) had attached Gurukulas called Saraswati mathas. Sharada Peeth in Kashmir was another famous seat of learning. Ghatika shells and Agraharas were attached institutions of learning to temples in South India. Dharampal in his works notes that the temple of each village had a school attached to it and the children of all communities attended these schools.
Concluding Remarks
The education system of ancient and medieval India and its unique pedagogy beautifully blended the sacred and the secular, the lower and the higher knowledge and created holistic education as the foundation of human life. This model provides a respite from the modern education system which has sadly become bereft of morals, discipline, higher aims of self-actualisation and spiritual upliftment akin to a dry stick. The blind race towards material possessions driving education and subjects of study along with the deadly evil of commercialised education does not paint a happy picture for a society seeking peace, harmony and fulfilment of its constituents. Lessons need to be learnt from the balance of Dharma and Artha in Indian education methodology, the blend of morality and duty-based discourse and that of personal advancement and material gains. Only then will education seek to eliminate ignorance and darkness and show the path of an ideal and divine life to the students.
ॐ असतो मा सद्गमय ।
तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय ।
मृत्योर्मा अमृतं गमय ।
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥
Lead us from the unreal to the real.
Lead us from darkness to light.
Lead us from death to immortality.
Acknowledgements
To the great Risis of India whose immortal words form the foundation of Bharat and the works of Dr RC Majumdar, DG Apte and Roma Chaudhari from which this primer has taken inputs.
(This article is copyright of the Author, no reproductions shall be made without permission, citation or acknowledgement)