Many false narratives often propagated by sections in academia, modern feminists, Marxist historians as well as some ignorant members of the Hindu society remain in the context of gender issues, particularly the position of women in Ancient India and the Hindu socio-political thought. Education forms the basis of human development and their journey towards a meaningful and empowered life. While most, seeing events in modern history and misinterpretations of religious texts came to believe that the position of women in light of the admission of women to formal education and religious rites is grim in the Hindu society, the truth remains the exact opposite of the notion. These ideas of ‘denigration of women’ in Bharatiya culture have also been significantly fanned by Marxist scholars who often drift away from facts in their attempts to interpret everything from a critical/conflict-based perspective. What really was then the position of women in ancient Indian education? What is the Bharatiya perspective on women’s social and educational position? Are women entitled to religious ceremonies? Are females entitled to the ‘Yajnopavita'(Sacred Thread)? This is a brief exposition along the lines of these questions. Those unfamiliar with the general education system in Ancient India may read the relevant post on Bharatiya Educational Methodology in the blog.
Women’s Rights to Vedic Studentship
A student’s life in the Vedic tradition was one embedded in the ideals of ‘Brahmacharya’. The term is usually equated with celibacy by most people however, celibacy forms but one element of Brahmacharya while the concept is relatively wide in scope. Brahmacharya consists of elements of a strictly disciplined life, both in terms of outward actions and self-discipline. Mental purity is of the utmost importance with thoughts directed towards the pursuit of knowledge alone accompanied with unflinching devotion to the preceptor or Guru. In short, endowed with the sacred thread in the upanayana ceremony, the student starts a new life, filled with noble sentiments, thoughts and actions. The phase of a Brahmachari student in the Gurukul lasts twelve years according to most texts.
The question of women’s right to Vedic studentship may be determined by the Vedic texts themselves and the six Vedangas. Krishna Yajurveda(Kathak Samhita) (5:4:23-24) refers to mantras where a woman is praying to the Vedas for knowledge and excellent qualities in children. Shukla Yajurveda (26.2) proclaims “यथे॒मां वाचं॑ कल्या॒णीमा॒वदा॑नि॒ जने॑भ्यः। ब्र॒ह्म॒रा॒ज॒न्यभ्या शूद्राय॒ चार्या॑य च॒ स्वाय॒ चार॑णाय च।” (That I to all the people may address this salutary speech (Vedic Knowledge), To priest and nobleman, Sûdra and Arya, to one of our own kin and to the stranger). The verse hence gives the right of Vedic studentship to everyone irrespective of their class distinction, occupation, relationship or citizenship (hence implicitly also without gender distinction), showing the vision of an egalitarian educational order.
Atharvaveda (11.5.18) says, “ब्रह्मचर्येण कन्या युवानं विन्दते पतिम् ” or “A girl after having completed her studies and after having fulfilled her Brahmacharya finds a youth as a suitable match for her” clearly indicating that young maidens were admitted to Vedic studentship and similar rites of Brahmacharya as boys. Though such instances being mentioned, we should remember that the Vedas are not books on social law and are not expected to elaborate extensively on social and educational order.
The Grhya-sutras are parts of the Kalpa segment of Vedangas and are linked to specific Vedas. These texts provide rules for Vedic rituals related to personal and family life (ie. Home or Griha). Mentions of female studentship also make an appearance in these texts. Aswalayana Grhya Sutra (Adhyāya III, Kaṇḍikā 8) while giving the procedure for the return of students from the teacher’s place to home after graduation, clearly mentions the procedure for female students. Similarly, the corpus of Dharma-Sutras gives details of ethical and legal aspects of ancient Indian society. According to Harita Dharma Sutra(As quoted in Smritichandrika), those women who are Brahmavaadini have right for initiation, Vedic studies, Fire establishment and bhiksha etc. (द्विऽविधाः स्त्रियो ब्रह्मवादिन्यः सदीवध्वश्च । तत्र ब्रह्मवादिनीनामुपनयनम्योन्धनं वेदाध्ययनं स्वगृहे भिक्शाचर्या चेति). Harita hence classifies women into scholars (Brahmavadinis) and householders(Sadyovadhus) with the former taking up higher education and study of Vedas and the latter getting married after the upanayana ceremony. While Brahmavadinis with their austere spiritual disciplines catered to the spiritual well-being of the entire society, the Sadyovadhus dedicated themselves to the welfare of their families, performing routine domestic duties. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (6.4.17) gives instructions on the procedure to be followed to beget such a daughter who would grow to be a scholar (‘अथ य इच्छेद्दुहिता मे पण्डिता जायेत’), indicating that scholarship to girls was not only allowed but desired in the Vedic society.
Women’s Rights to Initiation(Upanayana)
In the modern context, women are rarely seen wearing the sacred thread or undergoing the upanayana ceremony, giving rise to the belief that the upanayana ceremony and yajnopavita were reserved exclusively for male candidates or that the rites are patriarchal in nature. A review of literature suggests that these notions are not completely true. Harita, as seen earlier refers to the upanayana of all maidens irrespective of their becoming scholars or pursuing higher education after the ceremony. Aswalayana Grhya Sutra (1.15) mentions the naming ceremony (namakarana) where two names are to be given to both boys and girls, the former being used at home and the latter being revealed to the child at the time of the upanayana ceremony. This reference clearly implies that initiation(upanayana) was performed both for the male and female child. The Gobhila Grhya Sutra of the Sama Veda school (2.1.19) while describing the marriage ceremony alludes to the bride as one ‘who wears the sacred thread over her left shoulder’.
Inference of the right of women to initiation with due process and rights may also be drawn from the fact that Vedic Brahmana texts along with Epics have ample references to women participating in Vedic rituals and chanting Vedic mantras, as the next section elucidates. This, when seen with the necessity of Upanayana for the recital of Vedic mantras in ceremonies clearly indicates that initiation with the sacred thread was widely practised for all women before they were married. Needless to say, by virtue of Upanayana women also engaged in Sandhyavadanam (Dawn/Dusk prayers). Valmiki Ramayana (2.87.19 & 5.14.49) tells about Sita practising dusk prayers. Manusmriti (2.66) states that all rites for women (including upanayana) should be done without mantras indicating beginning of gradual degradation of the concept of initiation for women around 2nd Century BCE which finally disappeared in early centuries AD.
Women’s Rights to conduct and participate in Vedic Rituals
The natural consequence of Vedic education and initiation is the duty to participate in Vedic rituals and the right to chant Vedic mantras and conduct rituals(Yajnas) themselves. Married women had supreme importance in Vedic rituals and almost all rituals required both husband and wife for their conduct. The commonly used term for wife in Sanskrit/Hindi is ‘Patni’. Panini in his Ashtadhyayi, describes the etymology of Patni as “One who participates with the husband(pati) in rituals” (patyurno yajñasaṃyoge). The Shatpatha Brahmana (one of the foremost texts on Vedic rituals) suggests that women had their own hut in the compound meant for Vedic rituals and a separate cow meant for the wife of the ritual conductor (yajmana). The same verse also suggests that the chanting of Sama Veda was done in the early ages by the wives of the Vedic priests/householders which was later transferred to a special category of priests called ‘Udgatris’. The Shatpatha Brahmana in a Vedic ritual includes women going around the altar in circles while chanting the verses from Yajurveda.
Aswalayana Grhya Sutra (1.9.1) instructs both the wife and the daughter to engage in worshipping the Grhya Agni (the sacrificial fire at home) and offer oblations to it. Gobhila Grhya Sutra concurs with this (1.3.15) and instructs the wife to offer oblations to the fire in the morning and evening. Furthermore, the wife needed to accompany the husband in almost all Vedic rites. A bachelor had no right to conduct most Vedic sacrifices. Aswalayana Srautasutra also mentions a part of a ritual where the wife is instructed to read the Vedic mantras keeping the Vedas in her hand. The wife was considered one-half of the sacrifice and hence no sacrifice was complete without the active support and participation of the wife of the organiser of the sacrifice (in line with the etymology as discussed).
Taittriya Upanishad (2.2.2.6) clearly states that ‘a sacrificer who has no wife has no sacrifice’, highlighting the integral role of women in Vedic rituals. Gautama Dharma Sutra(28.15) allows a man to appoint his daughter as his successor in conducting Vedic rituals (both independently and for others) and hence alludes to the right of women to priesthood. The famous Mimansa philosopher Jaimini, argues forcefully for the rights of women to Vedic rituals after marriage in his text Jaiminiya Mimansa. Three Vedic rituals related to harvest and fertility were conducted by women alone ie. the Sitayajna, Rudrabali and Rudrayaga.
In the Epic Age, Valmiki Ramayana has several episodes of women conducting Vedic rituals and Yajnas alone. Kausalya is seen offering oblations to Agni and conducting prayers to Lord Vishnu. The fact that these oblations were being offered with Vedic Mantras is explicitly mentioned as ‘तदा मन्त्रवत्कृतमङ्गला’ (Valmiki Ramayana 2.20.15-19). Tara, the wife of Vali is described in the Kishkindhakand as ‘मन्त्रवित्’ or a lady well versed in mantras. Mahabharata also has ample references to female saints and scholars as well as renunciates.
Hence, numerous references across Vedic Samhitas, Brahmanas, Kalpa Sutras and Epics make it clear that women were not only entitled to Vedic rituals and recitals of Vedic mantras or give oblations(ahuti) in the Yajnas but were, in fact, integral to the successful conduct of all rites, a principal reason why wives were considered inseparable second halves of any person during the age.
Female Scholarship: Etymological Evidence
The category of female lecturers has been mentioned etymologically parallel to male lecturers in Patanjali’s Mahabhashya on Panini’s grammar. Upadhyaya connotes male lecturer and Upadhyaya connotes female lecturer. This establishes that there were a significant number of female scholars during the age of Patanjali (2nd Century BCE) and the number must have been higher earlier during the era of Panini. Ashtadhyayi of Panini mentions terms like Kathi, Bahvrci, Kalapi etc. as women associated with various recensions of Vedas (Shakhas). The terms denote ‘jati'(class) of women. While some would argue these terms denote ‘wives of Brahmanas’, this doesn’t seem to be the case as they occur with other examples like ‘vrsali’, which clearly references a woman of Shudra caste and not the wife of Shudra. Hence Kathi denotes ‘a woman educated in Katha shakha of Krsna Yajurveda), Bahvrchi denotes ‘a woman educated in Bahvrchi shakha of Rig Veda’ etc. Panini also refers to female Brahmana students of the grammar of one of the grammarians before him, Apisalaa. Such female scholars of grammar are called Apisala-Brahmanis. Hence etymological references validate the claim of scholarship of women as an etymology cannot exist without the existence of the object at some point of time.
Women Scholars and Sages: Extraordinary Females in Texts
The Vedas (anukramani or index of Vedas) enlists twenty six Rishikas or female Rishis to whom Vedic mantras were revealed and compiled in the Vedas. These include Romasa, Ghosa, Val-Ambhrini (Rishika of the Vedic Devi Suktam), Lopamudra (wife of Rishi Agastya) and Apala. The very fact of their being capable of comprehending the subtle supreme truths of Vedas and revealing them in form of Vedic hymns shows that the highest level of scholarship and penance was performed by women of the Vedic age, performing rituals being a natural extension of the same.
Upanishads exhibit female scholarship and intellect extensively on topics related to the Vedas, spirituality and questions of Vedanta. One of the most famous of these encounters is found between Gargi Vachaknavi and Yajnavalkya in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Gargi is categorised as a Brahmavadini (knower/expounder of Brahma Vidya) and one of the nine jewels of King Janaka of Mithila. When Yajnavalkya silences every learned man in the court of Janaka with ease, Gargi debates with him and proves the fiercest of interrogators beyond any other at the time with the debate ending almost at equals and Gargi humbly accepting the supremacy of Yajnavalkya in describing the supreme reality (Brahmana) (Brihadaranyaka Chapter 3, Sections VI and VIII). Another of the great Brahmavadinis is Sulabha Maitreyi who appears as the wife of Yajnavalkya in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as he discourses her on the nature of love and Brahmana and also as an ascetic in the Mahabharata. Both Gargi and Maitreya along with another female scholar, Vadava Pratitheyi, also appear in the Aswalayana Grhya Sutra (3.4.4) among the list of teachers to be satiated before beginning the study of Vedas, highlighting their position among legendary scholars of the age.
The Valmiki Ramayana while describing Ayodhya (Balakanda Sarga 6) refers to women of Ayodhya as righteous conduct, fully self-controlled and prosperous. Shabari is described as a great learned ascetic of the hermitage of Rishi Matanga who is extolled by the accomplished sages (siddhas) (Aranya Kanda Sarga 74).
Mahabharata has extensive references to women sages, saints and scholars. Shandili, a female ascetic of immense spiritual powers appears in Udyoga Parva of Mahabharata who makes the wings of Garuda disappear and then reappear through her powers. Sulabha, another learned ascetic debates with Janaka on the knowledge of Brahmana and leaves the learned king speechless with her wisdom and spiritual prowess. Almost all female characters of Mahabharata from Kunti to Draupadi, in their dialogues and debates appear to be extremely well-educated and have profound knowledge in areas of law, society, human emotions and Vedic texts. Arundhati, the wife of the great sage Vasishta is shown in Mahabharata as an acharya(teacher)and yogini who used to give lengthy spiritual discourses to even the Saptarishis.
Decline of Educational Status of Women in India
With the progression of age, Vedic rituals became extremely complex and the commonly spoken dialect became divergent from pure Vedic Sanskrit. The dual factors combined with the preference for the marriage of girls at the age of 16-17 years meant that females would find it very difficult to undertake the necessary 12 years of education (commonly held duration of stay at Guru’s house) which was increasingly being held necessary to study Vedas and practice rituals. Hence the number of female Vedic scholars began to decline. Many rituals that were assigned to females were transferred to male substitutes for the same. Gradually, the need of women was confined only to specific rituals and hence the need of formal education also declined simultaneously.
This vicious cycle gradually reduced the initiation ceremony (upanayana) to a mere formality as we find in later Smritis (rites for females to be conducted without mantras). Yama Smriti refers to the fact clearly that in an older era (‘purakalpe’), the practice of Vedic scholarship, upanayana, wearing the sacred girdle(an indicator of brahmacharya ashram), chanting hymns and teaching profession was in vogue for women and that she is to be taught preferably at home. This preference for teaching at home brings us to another possible reason for the decline of female education ie. the safety of women. Around the same time that female scholarship was rapidly declining, invasions became a regular affair (3rd Century BCE onwards). These events are unlikely to be a mere coincidence and further research may shed more light on this aspect.
What is most certain is (as Atlekar concludes) that the decline of the educational status of women in ancient India was not in bad faith or a deliberate attempt to reduce their status. The exclusion from Vedic studies and sacrifices advocated later was due to the growing fear that without proper and lengthy education in Vedic grammar and doctrines, the rites could backfire and have severe consequences for the women conducting them. On these lines, the gradual movement of women took place from Vedic rites to non-Vedic rituals and Bhakti and did not cause much hardship to the women. This is evident from the fact that in the modern practice of Hinduism, females are engaged in almost all forms of worship and rituals, mostly to a greater extent than their husbands.
Concluding Remarks
Interpretation of social issues in ancient Indian literature is extremely complex due to inherent contradictions that need to be reconciled based on logic while keeping the basic philosophical tenets of Vedas and Vedanta as guiding light. In this case, one needs to change the lens of interpretation from a ‘rights-based discourse’ as propagated in modern liberal understanding to a ‘duties-based discourse’ as is inherent in the ancient Indian socio-legal systems. With this, the philosophical basis in gender issues is one of harmony and completeness achieved through mutual relations. Hence women and men are seen as complementary entities of creation with no question of superiority or inferiority arising among the two sexes.
Ideas of exclusion in some Smritis may be discarded in the modern era, given their origin in the situations of the age of composition. With the age of marriage being sufficiently greater today and aspirations for education of the girl child increasing both among the female children and parents, by the above review it would be prudent to initiate desirous female pupils into the study of Vedas and Hindu studies as it existed in the Vedic era. There can be little justification for the exclusion of women from Vedic or Sanskrit scholarship today as the nature of socio-legal doctrines of Hinduism is fluid based on the era of application if basic tenets and rules of Vedas (Shrutis) are kept intact.
Feminist ideologues need to study the conception of ‘Vedic Feminism’1 which is positive and constructive, healthy and balanced based on mutual complementarity and respect. This is a stark contrast to the confrontationist perspective of the Western conceptions of feminism that are inherently unsustainable. The society is akin to the Yajna which cannot be complete without the participation of both the masculine and feminine, carrying out their duties with utmost sincerity and dedication. The rejuvenation of Hindu philosophical and ritual education and modern Gurukuls must ensure adequate arrangements for female scholarship while assuaging any concerns that may arise in a thoughtful manner.
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References
- Indian Feminism in the Vedic Perspective, Journal of Studies on Ancient India. Shashi Prabha Kumar(currently Dean, Sri Sankaracharya Sanskrit Mahavidyalaya, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Delhi Kendra and Chairperson, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla)
- Women’s Education in Ancient India, in Great Women of India. Roma Chaudhari
- The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization. AS Atlekar
- Women in Social life: An exploration through Vedic Culture. Sanjay Mishra and Sanat Kumar
- Original Texts where referred are taken from: valmiki.iitk.ac.in for Ramayana, wisdomlib.org, Geetapress Edition for Mahabharata